Editors' Code of Practice. The product fits all situations, as it performs well on Septoria tritici and rusts and therefore wouldnt require the addition of a strobilurin, said Mr Stephenson. In addition, septoria tritici blotch (Zymoseptoria tritici), powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis), tan spot (Pyrenophora tritici-repentis), and yellow rust (P. striiformis) were visually evaluated. The two primers were tag encoded using the forward primer design 5- CGT ATC GCC TCC CTC GCG CCA TCA GMID -ITS1F3 and the reverse primer design 5- CTA TGC GCC TTG CCA GCC CGC TCA GITS23. Adexar is formulated as an emulsifiable concentrate (EC) containing in addition to Xemium the established triazole fungicide epoxiconazole. Ammermann E, Lorenz G, Schelberger K, Mueller B, Kirstgen R, Sauter H. BAS 500 Fthe new broad-spectrum strobilurin fungicide. Real-time PCR for quantification of eleven individual, Spatiotemporal variation and networks in the mycobiome of the wheat canopy. The leaves from each replicate were pooled prior to being stored at -20C for downstream molecular analysis. Read distribution normalized with total fungal DNA amount in each sample and visual assessments of disease severity (septoria tritici blotch, powdery mildew, tan spot and yellow rust measured as % leaf covered with symptoms. Sporobolomyces sp. PCR reactions contained 1 GoTaq Colorless Reaction Buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM each dNTP, 1 M of each primer, 0.625 U of GoTaq DNA Polymerase (Promega Corporation, Madison, USA, cat. We addressed the following research questions: do fungicide treatments affect non-target pathogens? Best control of yellow rust and yield responses was obtained from the split control strategies. 28115) according to manufacturers instructions. Sporobolomyces sp., Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, Didymella exitialis, Dioszegia hungarica, and Udeniomyces pannonicus all had higher DNA contents, whereas Lewia infectoria, Phaeosphaeria nodorum and Puccinia striiformis all had lower DNA contents after treatment with Viverda (S4 Table). M300) and 1 l of DNA template in a final volume of 25 l. This website and associated newspapers adhere to the Independent Press Standards Organisation's The bulk samples were randomised with respect to sequencing pool and MID primer tags and the 30 single leaf samples were randomly assigned to MID primer tags. The ability to comment on our stories is a privilege, not a right, however, and that privilege may be withdrawn if it is abused or misused. DNA amounts were estimated by gel electrophoresis and by analysis on a NanoDrop ND 1000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) according to manufacturers instructions. 1353, max. The second application was applied at full flag leaf emergence (GS 39; May 25th) at a time with 0.51.0% severity of yellow rust on flag leaves. We showed how fungal communities were affected by three different broad-spectrum fungicides that had been applied at different timings and doses to control Puccinia striiformis. Singh RP, Singh PK, Rutkoski J, Hodson DP, He XY, Jrgensen LN, et al. On basis of the abundance data, those OTUs could be divided in four groups: very highly abundant (> 20%, OTUs 13), highly abundant (410%, OTUs 47), medium (14%, OTUs 811) and low abundance (< 1%, OTUs 1214). Fungicides were applied with a self-propelled sprayer using low pressure (2.9 bar), Hardi flat fan nozzles (green ISO 015), and 200 l/ha. Chlorothalonil gives added protection from disease and protects the fungicides from resistance development., Mr Clark concluded: Getting the spray timing right at T1 is all about leaf emergence, looking for that final leaf 3. Despite its advantages, other SDHI fungicides performed well last year, so growers and advisers might be reluctant to change for the coming season, said Mr Stephenson. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. The trial site was artificially inoculated using spreader plants (cultivar Brigadier) inoculated with P. striiformis f.sp. Although we did observe significant effects of fungicide application on pathogenic fungi, as discussed above, there was a striking resilience of fungal communities. DNA extractions were done using the Mag maxi DNA extraction kit (LGC Genomics, Teddington, UK, cat no. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the, GUID:CB31FF78-E15A-4B80-B5DF-3FA5B6B86DF5, GUID:8D12AF62-D4D8-4637-B4BA-E00CD07A8EDC, GUID:06C50382-95B9-444E-98B0-078DEF1D9AFD, GUID:BA81FBDB-7DB0-4340-9168-44B7B32435B6, GUID:15ACCD38-ACAF-4A12-9D80-E8142F26DCD8, GUID:760EDAA8-9494-40CC-9524-F4840463CEDB. PCR products were analysed by electrophoresis in a 1.5% agarose gel. PCR was performed using the following cycling protocol: 2 min at 50 C; 95 C 10 min; 40 cycles of 95 C for 15 s, 55 C for 1 min, and 60 C for 1 min followed by dissociation curve analysis at 60 to 95 C. Therefore, metabarcoding can add extra information to the control profile of different fungicides, where visual assessment can be difficult to apply with respect to separation of symptoms. The experimental design was a randomised block design with 3 replicates and a plot size of 22.5 m2. Timing of fungicide application affected the target organism P. striiformis resulting in less fungal DNA content in the late treatments and in split treatments. The new PMC design is here! var fw_collection_links = { official website and that any information you provide is encrypted HP10 9TY. CLOTU: An online pipeline for processing and clustering of 454 amplicon reads into OTUs followed by taxonomic annotation, PAST: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for Education and Data Analysis. Severity of symptoms of yellow rust and septoria tritici blotch in the different treatments. The study used a systematic approach with a split plot design to test three fungicides in two dose rates and at three timings, and the resulting effects on fungal communities. We want our comments to be a lively and valuable part of our community - a place where readers can debate and engage with the most important local issues. O'Hanlon KA, Knorr K, Jrgensen LN, Nicolaisen M, Boelt B. Fungal community analysis by high-throughput sequencing of amplified markersa user's guide. Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. Whatsapp: (+91) 98782-79404 This season it is all to play for across the countryside winter wheat crops are looking good, with promising yield potential. qPCR quantification showed no significant differences in total fungal DNA between the three fungicides and non-treated controls, but early treatment and lower dose both resulted in a modest but significant increase in fungal DNA. IF ON SKIN OR CLOTHING: Remove contaminated clothing and wash skin with plenty of soap and water. Applying Adexar made good economic sense at this timing, he added. Sequence files and metadata from this study were deposited in the NCBI sequence read archive under the number SRP167081 and the bioproject number PRJNA498985. Now you can book, track and pay all in one place. All tank mixes should be used mmediately after preparation. Triazoles are the leading chemical class of fungicides worldwide. Do NOT leave spray mix standing overnight in the spray tank. First AidIf medical advice is needed, have product container or label at hand. One of our initial interests was to test whether relative quantities obtained by metabarcoding of phyllosphere fungal communities in wheat correlated with the visually evaluated effects on known diseases at field level. This site is part of Newsquest's audited local newspaper network. The danger is that people look at their crops and they look tall but they are not actually at the T1 timing. More often than not in 2011 barley trials, it proved to be the highest yielding treatment of the SDHIs.". ANOVA factorial analysis followed by post hoc analysis (LSD, Student-Newman-Keuls) of means of variance using ARM software (http://www.gdmdata.com/) was used. We arbitrarily identified 14 core fungal species in our samples that were present in almost all samples. midArticleWidget: function(widget) { Karlsson et al. The reads were clustered at 97% identity into 40 non-singleton OTUs. Responses of the most abundant core OTUs (OTU1-14), total fungal DNA and P. striiformis DNA to fungicide treatment, dose and timing were compared using ANOVA factorial analysis using either least significant difference with a 95% confidence interval (LSD95) or Tukeys HSD using the ARM software (http://www.gdmdata.com/). The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. Red corresponds to high abundance and blue to low abundance. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Bill Clark, technical director, NIAB said: As well as Septoria, yellow rust is certainly around too. Jamnagar, Gujarat, Navapura Jamkhambhaliya, Khambhaliya, Jamnagar, Gujarat, Navapura Main Jamkhambhaliya, Navapura Jamkhambhaliya, Khambhaliya - 361305, Dist. Dose had significant effects on relative amounts of a few OTUs but not in the case of P. striiformis. Personal ProtectionWhen mixing and preparing spray, wear cotton overalls buttoned to the neck and wrist, a washable hat, suitable gloves, and goggles or a face shield. [5], therefore, yellow rust infection was quantified by qPCR. Combining the two active ingredients ensures that relevant fungal diseases are controlled in a particularly secure and prolonged way. Folicur contains Tebuconazole a systemic triazole fungicide. It really is one product fits all when assessing whether to use Adexar.. In this study, we used metabarcoding of the fungal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region to analyse the mycobiota of winter wheat inoculated with yellow rust and then treated with fungicides to control the infection. Mr Freer said: We are very happy to add chlorothalonil to Adexar, it mixes well; there isnt the antagonism that is seen with Aviator and chlorothalonil. no. Complete filling and maintain agitation until spraying is complete. These cookies do not store any personal information. Among those polycyclic fungi were Zymoseptoria tritici, Phaeosphaeria nodorum and Pyrenospora tritici-repentis that all re-infect wheat after early fungicide applications. Differences in the control profiles by fungicides have been shown in earlier studies. The .gov means its official. With an additional outlay of 5-10/ha, growers could increase output by between 50-100/ha. Yellow Rust Epidemics Worldwide Were Caused by Pathogen Races from Divergent Genetic Lineages, Detection and identification of four common rust pathogens of cereals and grasses using real-time polymerase chain reaction, ITS primers with enhanced specificity for BasidiomycetesApplication to the identification of mycorrhizae and rusts. The samples represented differences in timing and dose of three fungicides along with untreated controls. Resilience of the natural phyllosphere microbiota of the grapevine to chemical and biological pesticides. Zymoseptoria tritici) were significantly affected. contact IPSO here, 2001-2022. [5] who studied effects of fungicide treatments on fungal communities on cereal leaves from winter wheat and winter and spring barley. The ADEXAR should be used in a programme that incorporates fungicides with different modes of action to that of GROUP 7 and GROUP 3 fungicides. [5] observed a positive correlation between disease sympthoms of Septoria tritici blotch in wheat leaves and the relative number of Z. tritici reads obtained by metabarcoding. Comet, insecticides, herbicides (e.g fluroxypyr) and growth regulators (e.g. Rarefaction curves for bulk (a) and single leaf (b) samples and species accumulation curves for bulk (c) and single leaf (d) samples; both based on fungicide treatment. The new active ingredient, fluxapyroxad, is partnered with the strongest triazole, epoxiconazole, and offers great leaf retention, rain fastness and has an excellent tank mix profile, said Mr Hughes. We showed that fungal content was relatively constant even after fungicide treatments. Powdery mildew was also on the list of diseases to be evaluated in the field, but no visual symptoms were detected at this relatively late assessment date, which is in good agreement with the low abundance of Blumeria graminis DNA detected by metabarcoding. tritici isolate PstS0 [15] in April (17th and 18th), (growth stage (GS) 2430). Richard Alcock, independent agronomist, responsible for 4000ha of winter wheat in the south west of England, said: Crops are slightly more advanced than usual, perhaps a week to 10 days ahead with more advanced disease levels too. Accessibility Fraaije BA, Bayon C, Atkins S, Cools HJ, Lucas JA, Fraaije MW. All wheat pathogens of importance were detected in the data were within this range: Cladosporium sp. All amplifications were conducted in an Applied Biosystems 2720 Thermal Cycler (Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, USA) using an initial DNA denaturation step of 94 C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles at 94 C for 1 min, 53 C for 1 min, 72 C for 1 min, and a final elongation at 72 C for 7 min. SHRIRAM VAMCIN is also most effective against soil borne diseases and used for the control of Rhizoctonia solani in rice. The combination of Xemium with epoxiconazole a carboxamide (SDHI) with an azole has made it possible to formulate a new, high-quality broad-spectrum fungicide. increased with increasing dose whereas M. graminicola and L. infectoria decreased with higher fungicide doses. In addition to these, a number of OTUs were frequently found in the data, among those were weak pathogens such as Epicoccum nigrum (black head mold) as well as several basidiomycete yeasts (S1 Table). no. Based on data from variety trials Jrgensen et al. Dispose of the waste safely in suitable landfill. It is mandatory to procure user consent prior to running these cookies on your website. 40430) and with the KingFisher DNA purification system (Thermo Electron Corporation, Waltham, MA, USA) according to manufacturers instructions. Disease caused by each pathogen is noted. Viverda and Adexar were more efficient in controlling Puccinia striiformis, Aviator and Adexar were more efficient in controlling Zymoseptoria tritici, whereas Aviator was the most efficient fungicide against P. tritici-repentis. FOIA There was no significant correlation between tan spot symptoms and Pyrenophora tritici-repentis DNA, possibly due to low amounts of the pathogen and disease symptoms being difficult to differentiate from symptoms caused by other necrotrophs. Stores containing 100 kg or more of this product require emergency response plans and secondary containment systems, and are subject to signage. jQuery(collection + ' .caption').remove(); and transmitted securely. Futures markets and commodity risk management online course: Using contractors saves you time and money. In all cases, PCR reactions were performed in duplicate. Previously, it has been stated that quantification of DNA markers in samples does not suffice to describe biomass distribution; nucleus to biomass ratios may differ between taxonomic units and the number of DNA markers may differ in the genomes of different species [29]. Compatibility:ADEXAR may be tank mixed with most commonly used fungicides, e.g. Wear overalls, gloves, footwear and goggles. contact the editor here. jQuery(document).ready(function() { The fungicides included azoles (FRAC group 3, prothioconazole and epoxiconazole), which are ergosterol inhibitors [12], strobilurins (FRAC group 11, pyraclostrobin) and succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHI) (FRAC group 7, boscalid, fluxapyroxad, and bixafen) that both interferes with respiration in the mithocondrial complex [1214]. Each product was tested at two dose rates (25% and 75% of standard label rate). SpillagePrevent further spillage and product from entering waterways. Standard curves were generated using pure fungal DNA. L. infectoria, Microdochium nivale and Z.tritici responded to application dose showing lower fungal DNA content with higher doses in most treatments. Keep away from heat and protect from direct sunlight. Hoshiarpur, Punjab. and Udeniomyces pannonicus) and finally a group did not respond markedly to treatments. PCRProtocols and ApplicationsA Laboratory Manual, Rates of evolution of avirulence phenotypes and DNA markers in a northwest European population of. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics In: Innis MA, Gelfand D. H., Sninsky J. J., and White T. J., editor. The three fungicides included in our study were all broad spectrum products, which, however, are known for slightly different efficacies for control of individual diseases. No. (Read more about this in The Scottish Farmer, December 24 edition). Risk management strategies for a more predictable financial performance, Educated conversations when collaborating with your advisors, Negotiate better prices with your grain merchants. Refer to the NZCPR web site (www.nzpps.org/resistance/index.php) for more detailed information. Folicur offers an effective and reliable solution against a wide spectrum of diseases in many crops by protective, curative and eradicative action. IF IN EYES: Wash out immediately with water. National Library of Medicine The distribution of OTUs 114 in the single leaves (Fig 4) confirmed the tendency of a higher variation within untreated samples compared to fungicide treated samples. The authors wish to thank Sidsel Kirkegaard and Helene Saltoft Kristjansen who collected leaf samples and performed disease assessments. Kumar S, Carlsen T, Mevik BH, Enger P, Blaalid R, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, et al. 4331) (S1 Table). Disease assessments of all plots were carried out as per cent coverage of flag leaves by the individual disease symptoms giving an average score per disease based on a visual scoring 45 places in each plot. Adexar also offered physiological benefits to crops, said Bill Clark, director at Brooms Barn Research. Three different fungicides consisting of mixtures of active ingredients with different modes of actions were tested using Viverda (50 g epoxiconazole + 60 g pyraclostrobin + 140 g boscalid/l), Adexar (62.5 g epoxiconazole + 62.5 g fluxapyroxad/l) and Aviator (150 g prothioconazole + 75 g bixafen/l) (Table 1). PCR was performed using the following cycling protocol: 2 min at 50 C; 95 C 10 min; 40 cycles of 95 C for 15 s and 60 C for 1 min. Adexaris a highly effective fungicide based on the innovative active ingredient Xemium. Risk assessment studies on succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors, the new weapons in the battle to control Septoria leaf blotch in wheat. If you are dissatisfied with the response provided you can In their study Sporobolomyces roseus and Dioszegia hungarica showed significant positive responses to fungicide treatment whereas Alternaria sp., Cladosporium sp., Epicoccum nigrum, Phaeospharia sp. Disease impact on wheat yield potential and prospects of genetic control, Yield and optimum fungicide dose rates for winter wheat (. Similarly, Perazzolli et al. and Ascochyta sp showed significant negative responses to fungicide treatment, but none of the fungicide targets (e.g. Results showed that there was a strong and highly significant correlation (r2 = 0.688, P = 0.001) between the visual disease assessments of yellow rust and the qPCR quantification of P. striiformis (S2 Fig). Adexar, which is based on the leading SDHI (Xemium) and the strongest rust and Septoria azole (epoxiconazole), is fast, long acting and highly curative which is what you need for T1 because almost inevitably your leaf will be infected when you apply your fungicide.. Red corresponds to high abundance and blue to low abundance. Remove protective clothing and wash hands and exposed skin thoroughly with soap and water before meals and after work. The trial was assessed several times during the season, but for this study data and leaves from GS 77 (late milk stage; July 18th; 48 days after last spraying) were used. Genomic DNA from leaf samples was diluted 1:10 before PCR on a 7900HT Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems, Waltham, MA, USA). Jensen B, Knudsen IMB, Andersen B, Nielsen KF, Thrane U, Jensen DF, et al. Dean R, Van Kan JA, Pretorius ZA, Hammond-Kosack KE, Di Pietro A, Spanu PD, et al. Primers were synthesized at HPLC purity by Eurofins MWG GmbH. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Visit our Know How centre for practical farming advice. Adexar contains 62.5g/l xemium and 62.5g/l epoxiconazole and is compatible in tank mix with chlorothanonil. IPM Strategies and their dilemmas including an introduction to www.eurowheat.org. TRANSPORT: Do NOT carry this product on a passenger service vehicle. Fungicide treatment generally affected fungal communities as could be observed in a PCA plot (Fig 3). Pinto et al. In the last few years the biggest responses to fungicides we have seen have been on yellow rust susceptible varieties. Using Adexar at T1 gives resilience to the whole spray programme. Funded by KK: Grant 0602-01073B from the Danish Council for Independent Research, https://dff.dk/. 5418. Karlsson I, Friberg H, Steinberg C, Persson P. Fungicide effects on fungal community composition in the wheat phyllosphere. We observed effects of fungicide treatments on fungal communities using different dose, timing and products. All plots, except the plots receiving split treatments, were treated once: the first application was carried out at flag leaf emergence (GS 37; May 19th), one week before yellow rust attack developed on the flag leaves. In that way metabarcoding can facilitate a much more complete picture of the effects of fungicide treatments compared to visual assessments. Although you would never use Adexar specifically for tan spot, whilst you are using it for Septoria and yellow rust it will also give moderate control of this disease., In line with FRAG-UK guidelines for resistance management, BASF advocates the addition of a multi-site, like chlorothalonil, at T1. [4] studied the phyllosphere mycobiome of fungicide treated and non-treated wheat by 454 pyrosequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region. Jonathan Blake, senior research scientist with ADAS, said this week that a unique feature of Adexar was its strength on septoria tritici, where it is highly curative but also shows persistence as a protectant. Registered in England & Wales | 01676637 |. Each product were tested at three timings using one week intervals between treatments. In this specific study where severe attacks of P. striiformis dominated, it was difficult to visually separate other leaf diseases from necrotic attack of yellow rust late in the season. Fungal OTUs showed different trends in their reactions to fungicide treatments. Unless stated otherwise the normalised data was used in all subsequent analyses. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Junagadh, Gujarat, 3 Darwaja, Green Market, Jamnagar - 361005, Dist. Adexar is now approved for use in wheat, barley, oats, rye and triticale and contains the active ingredient xemium from the SDHI group and follows the launch of two SDHIs last season, bixafen and isopyrazam. Using OTU data, a principal component analysis (PCA) showed a clear separation between the fungicide treated (Viverda split treatment) and the untreated controls with a higher variation between samples in the untreated group compared to the fungicide treated (Fig 3). Treatments in this case consisted of several sprayings with a range of different fungicides. The estimated OTU richness in single leaf samples differed somewhat with Viverda (Chao10.95 = 27.0) treated leaves having a lower estimated richness than untreated controls (Chao10.95 = 32.7). about navigating our updated article layout. Please report any comments that break our rules. [7] estimated that average yield gains from use of fungicides range from 0.5 to 1.5 tonnes ha-1 in Denmark to 1.5 to 2.5 tonnes ha-1 in England. Thirty-six 10-nucleotide Multiplex Identifier (MID) primer tags for identification of sample-specific reads after pooling were selected randomly from the list of recommended MID primer tags from Eurofins MWG GmbH (Ebersberg, Germany). Effects of fungicide treatments on non-target fungi in the phyllosphere are not well known. The abundance data was normalized with respect to total fungal DNA in each sample as quantified by qPCR. Several effects of the different treatments on members of the fungal communities were observed (Figs (Figs11 and and22 and Table 3). In addition to fungicide treatments the trial included non-treated controls with three replicates. Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, ,VIJ TRADERS,19,,NEW GRAIN MERKET,, Phagwara Road, Hoshiarpur - 146001, Dist. [30] found higher fungal diversity in organically grown wheat. Scherm B, Balmas V, Spanu F, Pani G, Delogu G, Pasquali M, et al. Learn more General Safety and Hygiene MeasuresAvoid contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Transformation of data was included when needed for obtaining normal distribution. This could be caused by fungi recovering from the time of treatment to the time of sampling, but could also be caused by technical issues such as amplification of DNA from dead fungal material. Received 2018 Aug 21; Accepted 2019 Feb 15. Do NOT scrub skin. A PCA plot comparing communities on treated vs. untreated single leaves showed marked effects of fungicides in our experiment (Fig 3). The yeasts Cryptococcus victoriae, Dioszegia hungarica and C. stepposus all responded to choice of fungicide. This study addressed the effects of fungicides and their timing and dose on the phyllosphere mycobiota of wheat. [2] observed significant changes in microbial communities between fungicide treated and untreated grapevine. P. nodorum was detected by metabarcoding and the data revealed responses to treatment. The inoculation gave rise to an even and severe attack of yellow rust starting at the lower leaves in the beginning of May. If you have a complaint about the editorial content which relates to Overall, three groups of OTUs based on their reactions could be established in the bulked as well as in the single leaf samples. Do NOT induce vomiting. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Nicolaisen M, Supronien S, Nielsen LK, Lazzaro I, Spliid NH, Justesen AF. Choice of fungicide, timing and dose are known to influence the control level of yellow rust as well as other pathogens in wheat [911]. When comparing the visual disease assessments of yellow rust and Septoria tritici blotch with the quantitative (qPCR) and semi-quantitative metabarcoding it was evident that if the disease level exceeds a certain threshold there is a positive correlation between molecular and visual methods. It makes sound business sense to use Adexar, said Mr Hughes. Apply no more than two ADEXAR sprays per season. qPCR for estimation of P. striiformis DNA was carried out in a total reaction volume of 12.5 l consisting of 6.25 l 2 TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, cat. When yellow rust is bad, yield losses are higher than they are to From the BLASTclust analysis, an OTU table was constructed containing the abundance of reads in each OTU from each sample. Thorough coverage of the crop is necessary for best results. They observed that fungicide treatments had significant effects on the mycobiome on wheat leaves resulting in lower richness and evenness of operational taxonomic units (OTUs). or filamentous fungi with polycyclic infection cycles that are able to infect wheat late in the growing season after application of fungicides were able to exploit the available space.
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